Essay about Gardner and Zigler - 1004 Words

Running head: GARDNER AND ZIGLER 1 Gardner and Zigler Steven J. Karaiskos Northcentral University 5101-8 Foundations for Graduate Study in Psychology Alycia Harris March 02, 2013 GARDNER AND ZIGLER Gardner and Zigler 2 Howard Gardner and Edward Zigler are two influential psychologists who have altered the profession of psychology as well as provided new direction in such areas as early childhood development, education and even politics. Each, through their personal and professional paths, helped to establish a new foundation on which psychology stands today. Howard Gardner did not believe that psychology was going to be his profession. He considered becoming a lawyer, a doctor or a teacher (Gardner, 2003, p.79). His†¦show more content†¦277-278). Zigler’s focus, throughout his career, was to apply science to push forward his work in early childhood education. Gardner and Zigler both were presented with obstacles to their work. Each tried to push the boundaries of the current work and established studies of their time. Both Gardner and Zigler choose to step away from academia for a period of time. Colleagues and the traditional scientific establishments questioned their commitment to their work as a psychologist. This did not deter either Gardner or Zigler and they actively ventured into areas such as education and the politics of Washington D.C. Gardner and Zigler were willing to confront the established core of the field and establish that the study and application of psychology was not just for scientific purposes but it had applicable uses across our society. Each chose to examine the whole child or whole individual in their work. Gardner, in particular, chose to include artistic and creative elements in the scientific study of the mind. Zigler, in his own way, helped to reshape the perception of society to those individuals with mental retardation. Gardner and Zigler each helped mold the new idea that children (as well as human beings) were individuals withShow MoreRelatedLena Horne : An American Icon3136 Words   |  13 Pages LENA HORNE: AN AMERICAN ICON Fela Langston MUSI 305 Section A Dr. Zigler 13 May 2015 Lena Horne: an American Icon Lena Horne, born Lena Mary Calhoun Horne in Brooklyn, New York was an American jazz vocalist, actress and civil rights activist who lived from June 30, 1917 to May 9, 2010. Although Horne’s beauty and her elegance received praise throughout her career, her talents and impact on American society are equally unforgettable. She was an eight time

Love and Relationships Throughout the Ages of Man Essay

The Social Problem Kind Hearted Women (Sutherland, 2013) is a documentary that attempts to portray what it means to be a Native American in modern times. It uncovers how child abuse and domestic violence tainted the life of one woman on an Indian reservation. Robin Charboneau, the protagonist of the film, becomes a whistleblower of the dysfunctional tribal council system. As she seeks help and advocates for her family, she faces the scars from her own past and starts on a journey full of learning, growing and healing. Robin Charboneau Robin Charboneau is an Oglala Sioux woman in her early 30s who lives in North Dakota. She is a heterosexual, divorced mother of two young children. With a phlegmatic temperament, she writes poetry that†¦show more content†¦Her diagnosis of depression comes from a history of victimization starting when she was placed in foster care at a very young age. 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Compare and Contrast of Various Network Media

Question: Explain and define the Compare and Contrast of Various Network Media? Answer: Network Media Transmission Speed Transmission Capacity Security Ease of Use Relative Expense (Cost) Coaxial 44.736 MBPS 52 MBPS The inner part of the wire is made of two conducting element and the outer part is a hollow conductor and the centre part of the cable is made of copper wire. The second layer of the coaxial cable is made by coating metallic foil which is used as insulator. $64.41 (305 m) Twist Pair 100 MBPS (CAT 5) 1000 MBPS Two types of Twist Pair Cable are there such as unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP) cable. UTP wire is composed of copper wire pairs and is covered by an insulated material. STP cable is combined by techniques of noise cancellation, wire twisting and shielding. It is a cable used for telephonic voice transmission and connections of most Ethernet in terms of modern. It functions by transmitting data through a pair of wires by making a circuit. It is twisted so that protection can be made against crosstalk to reduce the noise by creating a magnetic field around it. $ 30.15 (60m) Fiber Optic 100 Mbit/s 1.6 Tbit/s. It is made up of two encased fibres in a separate sheaths with each fibre optical surrounded by a protective layer of a material which is buffer and later a shield of plastic (Kevlar) is layered then finally an outer jack (KachmarKleckowski, 2012). It can be used over great distance, security is better as it cannot be tapped; data rate is higher than coaxial and twisted pair and is susceptible to EMI. $125 (50m) Satellite 2.56 Tb/s 100 Gbit/s High chance of data loss Media installation is not required $50 million Microwave 100 GHz 1.0 gigahertz The travelling of electrical signals by moving from one node to another over a physical medium is called network media The wireless medium operates based on the Microwave, transmitting signals between devices on a LAN $63.23 Radio 50 GHz 1.0 gigahertz The wireless signals are in the form of electromagnetic waves which can travel even in vacuum or air. Transfer data in more ease way rather than wire connection $56.25 Recommendation and Justification for a medium for the Electronic Noisy Factory for Acid to Fetch Metal A medium for an electronically noisy factory that should be used to fetch metal is Fibre optic cable because it is immune to electromagnetic interference and it reduces the noise because signals are transmitted in the form of light instead of current. To justify this; fibre optic cable should be used as it has a greater degree of fidelity; works well over greater distances, does not create noise and it is extra secure. The copper wire is sensitive towards acids, waters and chemicals but fibre optic cable has no risk of being damaged by harsher elements. The fibre optical cable consumes less electricity in comparison to copper wire. The electrical conductivity of fibre optic cable is none whereas copper cable has a huge electrical conductivity. References Cisco Systems, I. (2016). CCNA: Network Media Types. Ciscopress.com. Retrieved 5 March 2016, from https://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=31276 Jullien, C., Besnier, P., Dunand, M., Junqua, I. (2013). Advanced modeling of crosstalk between an unshielded twisted pair cable and an unshielded wire above a ground plane.Electromagnetic Compatibility, IEEE Transactions on,55(1), 183-194. Kachmar, W. M., Kleckowski, R. J. (2012).U.S. Patent No. 8,107,781. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Liu, V., Parks, A., Talla, V., Gollakota, S., Wetherall, D., Smith, J. R. (2013). Ambient backscatter: wireless communication out of thin air.ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review,43(4), 39-50.

Wriston Manufacturing Corporation Essay Example For Students

Wriston Manufacturing Corporation Essay Wriston’s Detroit plant is no longer a viable operation due to long-term capital underinvestment and product-process mismatch. It is recommended that the plant be phased out of operations over a five-year period with production and staff gradually shifted to a new plant to be built in the Detroit area. Further, it is also recommended that division accounting procedures and evaluation mechanisms be modified to allocate revenues/costs allowing for the synergistic benefits of Detroit’s products, and to recognize inherent manufacturing complexities, respectively. Issues Detroit’s production is unique when compared to other Wriston plants. Runs are typically lowvolume, involve significant set-up time, and vary significantly due to the sheer volume of different products lines, families and models. It is notable that the Detroit plant is the only plant manufacturing all three product lines: brakes, off-highway and on-highway axles; all other plants produce only a single product line. As seen by its area in Figure 1, manufacturing in Detroit is significantly more complex than other plant. We will write a custom essay on Wriston Manufacturing Corporation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Also notable in this figure are Detroit’s low return and relatively low sales figures. Capital investment has lagged in Detroit and the equipment is out-dated and inefficient. The general work environment is poor, with leaking pipes and old fixtures. Built in an ad-hoc manner, the layout of the Detroit plant is piecemeal; production typically requires complex flows 1 through dedicated machining areas scattered about various buildings. Both the environment, and other factors seem to contribute to a poorly motivated workforce. Analysis If used prescriptively, Figure 1 would suggest Detroit and its products be divested, though Wriston’s study group report suggests some products may be profitable if transferred to alternate plants. Shown in Table 2 though, the burden rate for each of these potentially ‘profitable’ groups is well above normal, apparently reflecting the complexity and variability inherent in Detroit’s assigned products. Variability, coupled with low volume, suggests the need for a flexible manufacturing system (FMS); the Detroit shop is instead closer to a flow shop configuration. This represents a productprocess mismatch. As the majority of the division’s plants are also flow shops, it seems at best uncertain whether any of Detroit’s products could be better-produced at other plants; any product transfers would almost certainly inflate the receiving plant’s burden rates. The possible exception to this is the Fremont plant which has some experience and technology dealing with lower volume runs and product variety. Unfortunately, they are close to capacity. The true value of Detroit’s products (to the division) must also be considered. Each plant is currently accounted for on a standalone basis, but Detroit’s many low-volume products are in large part supplementary (e. g. replacement parts) to other plant’s high-volume products. While these products are necessary to enable high-volume product sales, they are not necessarily sufficiently profitable to justify their standalone existence. So too, Wriston’s commitment to provide replacement parts seems indicative of the market’s valuation of such and their needed production, even if not directly profitable. Then internal performance measures and accounting systems should allocate a portion of other plant product revenues to Detroit in recognition of their synergistic contributions to those products sale. Aside from the depressing plant state, the demoralized workforce at Detroit can be explained by their long-term underperformer attribution. This negative feedback, coupled with a lack of situational control (inefficiencies relate to process primarily) destroys their intrinsic motivation. So too, the commitment of workers to a single machine minimizes flexibility and skill variations, both otherwise motivating factors. Local workforce expectations are diminished when successful products are transferred away to other plants. The rewards for Detroit’s efforts are usurped by the receiving plants. Alternatives and recommendations Four alternatives have been considered for Detroit; a summary of the key characteristics for each is provided in Table 1. The fourth option presented involves creation of a new plant, but varies from the third option in that production would gradually rather than immediately shift from the current plant. Based upon the analysis provided above, any new plant should be built around flexible manufacturing processes. .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .postImageUrl , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:hover , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:visited , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:active { border:0!important; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:active , .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u78b9e364672b5f9c2fad7bbaf16860df:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Crime And Punishment EssayThis represents a radical departure from current processes and older members of the workforce may be challenged to adapt; retraining will likely be unpopular and ineffective for these workers. While running two plants in parallel certainly incurs some overhead, it would allow the older workforce to continue the successful manufacture of some Detroit products while naturally retiring from the organization over a five-year period, and younger workers to learn FMS processes and takeover products in a controlled, timely manner. 3 The net present value (NPV) of each option has been calculated and included in Table 1, based on figures from the study group report. Unfortunately, these figures are flawed in the same manner as Wriston’s current performance and accounting mechanisms in that they don’t properly allocate revenue, nor do they recognize inherent manufacturing complexities. The plant closure option’s expected operational gain seems particularly suspect. A better valuation of the new plant options is perhaps given by assuming an FMS-based Detroit plant could achieve burden rates similar to its nearest (process) counterpart, Fremont. With proper processes and accounting in place, it is reasonable to conceivable they could match Fremont’s burden rate of 3. 65, which, as seen in Table 2, would result in a $6. 37M annual savings and a projected ROA of 20%; the NPV of the new plant and phased-in offerings would then be $31. 5M and $30M respectively. Then, plant closure option is to be rejected due to potential lost synergies and expected productivity losses. Re-tooling fails to address the underlying issues at Detroit and should only be considered if capital constraints preclude either new plant option. It is recommended that a new plant be opened. While NPV calculations would seem to favour option three, they effectively ignore transitional costs. Given phased transition to a new plant is likely to provide productivity benefits in excess of the $1. 5M NPV differential, it is recommended that planning for the new plant at least carefully consider this option. Word count: 1000 4 Appendix (discussion with 692, 351) Table 1 Detroit plant alternative assessment matrix Factor Financial implications Marketing, sales and service Social responsibility Operational efficiencies Option 1: close the plant, transfer (some) production Net $2M one-time loss on closing costs/gains. Between $4. 9-5. 6M increase in annual cashflow (see table 2) Insignificant direct sales loss; potential significant market disaffection due to lost product support/service Ethical obligation to workers; negative community and press response Transferred products require job shop efficiency – destination plants are primarily high-volume flow shop configurations Option 2: Re-tool plant (5-10 year bridge) Additional $2M per year loss from tools maintenance, upgrading; on-going performance drag on company Maintain sales and full product line, including support products Defer issues of closure and separation – many older workers will be retiring within 10 yrs Maintenance investments do not address underlying productprocess mismatch; no expected improvement Option 3: Build new plant Capital intensive – need to consider Wriston cash/profit position; projected negative NPV Flexible manufacturing will allow more cost effective support of current and future low-volume service products Difficult to successfully transition older workers to new processes; likely requires buyout Introduction of flexible manufacturing should significantly improve performance; symbolism of new plant re-focuses and vitalises workforce Option 4: Phased transition to new plant As per option 3; delayed sale of old plant decreases NPV As per option 3 Older workers can be retired out of old plant as younger workers are retrained in new plant As per option 3, with less disruption/lost productivity during transition Figure 1 (modified) BCG performance matrix for Wriston HED Saginaw (10) Fremont (10) Table 2 Key financial figures and projections for Wriston Detroit plant Burden by Detroit sub-group Group Group Group 1 2 3 Total 592 516 1630 2738 1260 2. 13 3829 5089 8. 60 2. 3 2. 7 1102 2. 14 3470 2. 13 5832 2. 13 10527 16359 5. 97 4. 9 5. 6 Projections Return on assets (attractiveness) Leba non (2) Tiffin (6) ? Essex (4) Star Sandus ky (5) Mays ville (2) Detroit (20) Lima (4) Notes: 1. .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .postImageUrl , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:hover , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:visited , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:active { border:0!important; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:active , .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5eefb22127641afbaf6ac34c335749fd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Allusions In Invisible Man EssayArea for each plant indicates the complexity of operations, where complexity is primarily driven by the number of product families and models. High 2. Market growth and share figures, standard axis for Low High Relative sales within HED (competitiveness) BCG matrices, were not available and have thus been replaced with ROA and relative sales respectively. Low Direct labour Variable mfg. overhead Variable burden rate Fixed mfg. overhead Total mfg. overhead Total burden rate Minimum gain ($M) Maximum gain ($M) Dog Cash cow 2582 4116 3684 7586 7. 14 4. 65 Returns 0. 7 1. 9 1 Potential O/H based on Fremont 9994 3. 65 ROA 20% Savings 6365 5

Please, Please Do Your Homework Before Pitching

Please, Please Do Your Homework Before Pitching Frequently I receive emails from prospective writers asking what I seek for FundsforWriters. Some go as far as to ask what I pay, how I pay, and how quickly I pay without so much as a hint to what they propose to write. While I know cultures change from country to country, even state to state, the fact is its rather presumptuous to ask how youre going to get paid before you demonstrate youre a writer. If you wish to pitch a magazine, website, newsletter, anthology or prospective client, please do the following first: 1) Read up all you can on the entity before you make a connection. If its a magazine, study the ads, the old articles, and the masthead to see how many articles are usually written in-staff versus freelance. And if they have guidelines, 2) Have a website or blog that demonstrates who you are and what you are capable of doing. 3) Know what youd like to pitch to the publication after understanding what they need. When you pitch, do NOT say the following: 1) You are a new writer seeking to break in. 2) You want to know how and when youll get paid. 3) You want the editor to tell you what to write. 4) You cannot find the guidelines. 5) You are retired, a student, a stay-at-home mom, disabled, a PhD candidate, etc. unless that has everything to do with what you are pitching. Its all about the article and your experience in writing THAT article, not your lifes history or ID. When you pitch, the editor absolutely wants the following: 1) A memo to them personally, not the team, or the editor, or to whom it may concern. 2) A pitch for a story that matches the publication perfectly. 3) Enough

18 ACT Tips and Tricks to Improve Your Score

18 ACT Tips and Tricks to Improve Your Score SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Looking for some quick fixes to improve your ACT scores? Look no further. In this article, we give you severaltips and tricks for the ACT so that you can get your best possible scores on every section. First, I'll go through specific tips for each of the five sections (English, Math, Reading, Science, and Writing). Then, I'll provide you with overall tips you can use throughout the test.Note that these are all last-minute test-taking advice tidbits rather than in-depth study hacks. Therefore,it's best to view them as light icing on top of a delicious cake representing the ACT expertise you've developed over a longer period of time. ACT English Tips The first section you'll take on the ACT is the English section, which focuses on your knowledge of grammar as well as your editing skills. #1: Choose the Most Concise Answer ACT English questions look for answers that result in the most straightforward, logical sentence structure, so try to find the choice that provides all of the necessary information for the sentence to make grammatical sense- and nothing extra. The best writing says what it needs to say clearly and concisely! #2: Read the Paragraph First A good plan of attack for ACT English is to read the whole paragraph that has the sentence you must revise before you look at the answer choices.This will give you context for your choices and a better grasp on the structure of the sentence and how you might need to change it.With this strategy, you can reduce the number of errors you make caused by careless misreadings. #3: Be Careful With "No Change" Answers On ACT English questions that ask you to choose the answer that makes a sentence grammatically correct, you'll have the option to pick "No Change." This is a dangerous choice because if you aren’t aware of more obscure grammar rules, you might be tempted to choose it on some questions for which the sentence actually can be improved. Thus, it’s really important to double-check all other answers before settling on "No Change" as the correct choice. That said, keep in mind that "No Change" really is the correct answer around25-30% of the time it's an option, so don't second-guess yourself if you're relatively certain there isn't an error. Read the sentence through with each of the possible suggested changes before you bubble in â€Å"No Change† to ensure that you’re ultimately making the right call. ACT Math Tips Up next is the ACT Math section. Here, we give you two key tips you'll need to know in order to get a high Math score on test day. #4: Pay Attention to Diagrams The ACT Math section will often provide you with diagrams of figures that describe the problem you’re trying to answer.It’s important to pay attention to these figures, asthey will give you clues about which answer choices are the most logical. If a problem asks you to figure out an angle, for example, and some of the choices are acute while others are obtuse, you’ll be able to eliminate at least a couple of these answers just by looking at the diagram.If it doesn’t seem like an answer is possible based on the visual aid alone, it’s usually safe to cross it out. #5: Plug In Answers and Numbers Two of the most important strategies to help you confirm you've got the correct answer on a math problem are to plug in answersand plug in numbers. Here's how to plug in answers: if a question asks you to solve for x,simplyplug each answer choice back into the original equation and see which one works. This will tell you which answer choice is the correct one. You don’t even need to really solve the problem! Plugging in numbers is a little different. With this strategy, you'll choose random numbers to plug into algebraic variables. This strategy lets you analyze the problem using real numbers instead of unknowns, and works best for questions with multiple variables. While helpful, these strategies can sometimes be more time consuming than just solving the equation directly, so only use them as a last resort if you're stumped. All you gotta do is find the right answer cord. ACT Reading Tips With ACT Reading- the third section on the test- you'll need to know how to read and interpret passages both quickly and accurately. #6: Start With Your Strengths The ACT Reading section is always structured the same way with four topic areas in the same order. Each topic corresponds to a passage or pair of passages.These topics are as follows: Prose fiction/literary narrative Social science Humanities Natural science To make sure you’re getting the most out of this section, start by reading the passage(s) that correspond to the topic area in which you are most comfortable.This might simply mean starting with subject matter that is most interesting to you and will thus make for a quicker read. This way, you can get the questions that are easiest for you out of the way first and won’t risk running out of time before you have a chance to answer others. #7: Skim Passages There’s a lot of time pressure on the ACT Reading section, so try to read the passages as efficiently as possible.For some students, it might be manageable to read passages normally and still have enough time to finish the section, but you have to be a really quick and thorough reader in order to pull this off. The best strategy for most people is to skim the passages instead.In order to skim effectively,read the introduction and conclusion paragraphs as well as the first and last sentences of every body paragraph.This will give you a good overview of the main ideas and allow you to answer most main point questions.When you get to questions about details, you can then reread specific parts of the passage if necessary. ACT Science Tips For the Science section, you'll need to know how to interpret data and must answer questions dealing with graphs, tables, and scientific experiments. Here are our two best tips. #8: Do the Conflicting Viewpoints Section Last Theconflicting viewpoints section on ACT Science is usually the most time consuming for students. In case you’re not familiar with it, this part of the section asks you to read two or three passages that detail different viewpoints on a scientific issue.You'll then answer questions about these viewpoints and how they relate to one another. Since this is more reading-intensive and can eat up a lot of time, it’s best to save this part for last so that you don’t end up missing other questions later on in the section that will be quicker and easier for you to answer. #9: Rely On Visuals The ACT Science section hits you with a lot of complicated terminology and unfamiliar facts that make it seem overwhelming.The best policy when faced with all of this information is to ignore it and go straight for the graphs, which should provide enough information for you to answer the majority of the questions you’re faced with. Most of the information you’re given is just extra stuff thrown in there to make this section seem more difficult than it really is. In reality,ACT Science is more about logical reasoning and data interpretation than it is about actually knowing any science. As long as you can read the graphs, you'll be fine! If you can't read this graph, drink more coffee. ACT Essay Tips The ACT Writing section, or Essay, is an optional section and the last one you'll take (if you signed up to take it). Below, we give you two expert tips to help you get the Essay score you deserve. #10: Pres Since ACT Essay prompts are relatively predictable, you can do some of your own essay planning before the test to save yourself time and stress.Choose concrete examples from art, history, literature, and/or personal experience; try not to use hypothetical or vague examples to support your points. Keep in mind that all of the facts you use in your essay don’t necessarily have to be true. Graders don’t have time to fact-check, so they'll take everything you write at face value. This means you can make up statistics or historical facts to support your thesis, and you won't be penalized! #: Write a Great Intro and Conclusion It’s likely that the essay graders will read your introduction and conclusion more closely than they will the rest of your essay. If they can find your thesis easily, you're already on the right track to earning a great Essay score.As long as you have body paragraphs that make sense and support the points outlined in your thesis, graders will likely give you at least a 4 in the Organization and Ideas and Analysis domains. You'll also need to write a conclusion paragraph thatrestates your thesis andshows a strong understanding of how all your points relate to one another. If you can demonstrate basic knowledge of how to logically structure an essay and stay on topic, you'll be good to go. Overall ACT Tips Now, let's wrap up with some general ACT tips to help you feel more confident for test day. #12: Skip Hard Questions On the ACT, time pressure is a very real problem for many students. To avoid losing points, you need to learn to skip questions that are giving you trouble before they eat up too much of your time.â€Å"Too much of your time† means something different for each section: English: more than 30 seconds per question Math: more than 60 seconds per question Reading: more than 45 seconds per question Science: more than 45 seconds per question As a rule of thumb, if you feel like you’re not any closer to figuring out a question after about 30 seconds, move on.Circle that question so that it’s easier to spot later on when you want to go back to it. Then, make a quick pass through the whole section and answer all of the easy questions first so you don’t miss points by running out of time before you're able to get through everything. #13: Use the Process of Elimination For every section of the ACT, use the process of elimination as your main strategy for attacking tough or confusing questions.This ties into the fundamental rule of ACT reading, which says that for every question there is only one completely correct answer- the rest can be eliminated based on evidence in the passage. The process of elimination is more foolproof than trying to pick out the correct answer from the pack. Look for reasons to get rid of choices rather than reasons why they might work. This will help you be more picky about which answer you bubble in, and will also prevent you from thinking that more than one answer might be correct.If there’s even one tiny thing out of place in an answer choice, get rid of it! #14: Bubble at the End You can save time on the ACT bywaiting until the end of a section to bubble in your answers. This cuts down on your time per question by letting you avoid the process of going back and forth between your test booklet and answer sheet.It’s more efficient to circle the answers you choose in your test booklet and then fill them in all at once later. Before using this tip, though,make sure you can reliably finish the section with at least three to five minutes to spare!Don't risk running into a situation in which you don’t have enough time to bubble in your answers even though you’ve gone through all of the questions. Just as you are legally obligated to pop all of the bubbles in a sheet of bubble wrap, so too must you fill in all bubbles on the ACT. #15: Answer Every Question Since there isno penalty for guessingon the ACT, make sure youfill ineverybubble!An incorrect answer and an unanswered question both have the same impact on your raw score, so even if you have no idea how to answer something, it's best to go ahead and guess anyway. #16: Get a Good Night's Sleep the Day Before the Test It might sound cheesy, but you'll feel a lot more prepared (and awake) on test day if you get a solid amount of shuteye the night before the test. How many hours you need to feel well rested varies depending on the person, but generally it's good to aim for at least eight hours of sleep. Heading into test day feeling sleepy and exhausted can dramatically affect your ability to focus and potentially lower your score. So get to bed early! #17: Eat a Hearty Breakfast In addition to the tip above, it's equally important to eat a healthy, satisfying breakfast before you take the ACT. This way you'll feel more awake and energized before taking the test. What's more, you won't have to worry about a growling stomach later on! #18: Stay Calm The most important thing to remember during the ACT is to keep a cool head.Especially given the time pressure, students who suffer from test anxiety often freak out if they have to skip a few questions.Don’t let this happen to you! Keep moving forward and answer what you can.You might find questions that initially seemed impossible are much easier when you come back to them. The nice thing about the ACT is that once you get through a section, you’re completely done with that subject. So you won’t have to worry about it until the next time you take the test (if that time even comes!). Review: 18 Tips for Improving Your ACT Score You can quickly improve your section scores on the ACT if you remember to use these 18 tips before and during the test. Let's recap: ACT English Tips Choose the Most Concise Answer Read the Whole Paragraph First Be Careful With "No Change" Answers ACT Math Tips Pay Attention to Diagrams Plug In Answers and Numbers ACT Reading Tips Start With Your Strengths Skim Passages ACT Science Tips Do the Conflicting Viewpoints Section Last Rely On Visuals ACT Essay Tips Pres Write a Great Intro and Conclusion Overall ACT Tips Skip Hard Questions Use the Process of Elimination Bubble at the End Answer Every Question Get a Good Night's Sleep the Day Before the Test Eat a Hearty Breakfast Stay Calm Remember, these are quick fixes that aren’t substitutes for studying content and gaining a deeper understanding of your mistakes.You should read some of our other articles, like this one on how to get a 36 on the ACT, to supplement your use of these tips and tricks! What's Next? If you're looking to do some more hardcore studying, take a look at this list of the top 10 books you should be using for ACT prepand this list of the best websites for ACT prep. Are you taking the ACT soon and need some advice on last-minute strategies you can use? Here are the bestguides to read for last-minute ACT prep. Haven't scheduled your test date yet? Find out the best ACT date for you! Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by ACT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. 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Civil Rights Movement in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Civil Rights Movement in the US - Essay Example It lasted until national civil rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s. African-Americans and other racial minorities rejected this regime. They resisted it and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It struggled to end race discrimination through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. Its crowning achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that rejected separate white and colored school systems and by implication overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by its lack of immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about desegregation. In defiance, they adopted a combined strategy of direct action with nonviolent resistance known as civil disobedience, giving rise to the African-American Civil R ights Movement of 1955-1968. Notable legislative achievements during this phase of the Civil Rights Movement were passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964, that banned discrimination in employment practices and public accommodations; the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that restored and protected voting rights; the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups; and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, that banned discrimination

Business Kodak and Fujifilm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 10

Business Kodak and Fujifilm - Essay Example According to the study in 1976, the company had 90% market share in USA. But during the late 1990s the company started to struggle financially as the sales of photographic film declined. After that the company was able to earn in 2007 by selling digital cameras. In January 2012, Kodak filed for protection against in the District Court of United States. Kodak had sold many of its business and patents to various companies. Fujifilm Holdings Corporation which is generally known as Fujifilm and it is a Japanese company specialized in imaging and photography. It has it’s headquarter in Tokyo, Japan. The core businesses of Fujifilm are production, sale and servicing of color film, development, digital cameras, color paper, equipments for photo finishing, equipments for graphic arts, equipments for medical imaging, printers, optical devices and flat panel displays. Fujifilm was founded in 1934 as a manufacturer of photographic film. It has expanded to be a leader in various fields of business. During the 1940s Fuji photo entered into the market segment of lenses, optical glasses and equipments. This essay declares that in 1962, the company has launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd along with another UK based company Rank Xerox. In the 21st century, with the rapid pace of digital technology in the photography segment the company had transformed its business structures in to digital technology. Although the company was founded many years later than Eastman Kodak Company but Fujifilm was able to transform its business very quickly from film to digital technology. The diversification strategy of Fujifilm was also successful while Kodak failed on that.  

Humorits Essay Example for Free

Humorits Essay Some men see things as they are and ask why. Others dream things that never were and why not†, said by George Bernard Shaw (miscellaneous quotes). In society today, many people go about with things and don’t ask why they do such matter. In the article, â€Å"Corn-pone opinions† by Mark Twain, he uses a good example: he states that â€Å"fashion has established itself: it is admired, now, and no one laughs†. In other words, fashion is created, and people go along with it and never ask why they do so. Alain de Botton argues that humorists are not to entertain but â€Å"to convey with impunity messages that might be dangerous or impossible to state directly†. In agreement, humorists play a vital role in society. As an illustration to how humorists play a vital role in society is in the article â€Å"A Modest Proposal† by Jonathan Swift, who creates a plan for eating Irish babies. Swift, is criticizing the English for their abuses against the Irish. Swift thought that eating the Irish babies would solve the â€Å"Irish problem†. However, the plan is ridiculous because it is used to describe how the Irish is being treated. The meaning thats being read in the article is that English dont value the Irish life. Instead of Swift saying so, he uses the comparison of eating babies and the abusing of Irish people. For this purpose, criticisms are being made and people dont realize them but they send a strong message. Another example of how humorists play a vital role is society is in the article ‘Corn-pone Opinions†, Twain shows another example by stating â€Å"Our table manners, and company manners and street manners change from time to time, but the changes are not reasoned out; we merely notice and conformed†. In this quote Twain tries to describe the fact that many things are changing and no one take the time to notice it; they just gone along with it. In addition, society does not realize things that is going on. They just feel that when something is being said or done that it may be the right thing so they just go along with it because they feel they need self-approval from one another and never notice that it is affecting our society.

Love through life and death Essay -- Article Analysis, Stephen Lowe

For Time Magazine, by Stephen Lowe You’ve probably heard of the Indian vs. emigrants shootings, the drowning of the Applegate family, and starvation on the Oregon Trail, but do you honestly know to what extent how hard the journey was for the emigrants to make this 2,000 mile journey (McGill; Wagner, 10-15, 109-110; Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). The emigrants had to go through endless hardship, varying from walking the entire journey to deadly unknown diseases (Boettcher and Trinklein; Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). According to the Oregon-California Trails Association, expected mothers were common emigrants to travel on the trail, meaning that majority of the wagons on the trail had at least one expectant mother (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Thousands of babies were on the Oregon Trail. When the food was limited, babies would cry, not understanding why they weren’t getting fed (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). They would become malnourished and desperately thin (McGill; Boettcher and Trinklein). When the need for food became urgent, babies were passed from mother to mother in order to be fed milk that they desperately needed to keep them alive (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Those babies, thin and helpless, often had their lives taken by the trail. The Oregon Trail was a hostile and deadly route, though many don’t know the severity of the conditions on the trail. There are many stories gone unknown that show a family’s amazing perseverance through the trail. This article covers the eventful but unknown journey of the True family’s trek over the Oregon Trail, providing parts of Charley True’s journal to show what the Oregon Trail was like through the eyes of an emigrant. Having to deal... ...r disasters, and a bout of cholera within their wagon party. The last few stretches of the trail were the most difficult, though (Wagner, 109-110). A supposed shortcut turned out to be a dangerous and deadly trail that could have killed us all. After crossing a river, going through mountains, and pushing through desert, we faced all the fears of nature. We saw other families go down in the raging rivers and drown (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Frostbite and cold were associated with the mountains. Rattlesnake bites and dehydration were apparent in the desert (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). In these last days, each day became harder and harder. More people were getting buried under the ground in shallow graves, and even more things had to be thrown out. The feet of the oxen split, and their shoes fell off (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail).

Moot Court Essay

Jitender Sharma was a young boy of 18 years of age. He fell in love with Poonam Sharma who was a girl of 16 years of age. One day they eloped from their respective homes and finally got married as per Hindu rites and ceremonies. Poonam’s family members were against this marriage. Even her Grand Father and Paternal uncle were not ready to accept this marriage at any cost. They threatened Poonam of her life and safety. Thereafter Poonam’s father lodge First Information Report (FIR) against Jitender at Gandhi Nagar Police Station, Delhi under section 363 and section 376 of Indian Penal Code. On 05.05.2010, a typed letter signed by Poonam was received at the Gandhi Nagar Police Station stating that ‘she had married Jitender with her own will and requested not to file any criminal case against Jitender’. Thereafter on 07.05.2010 Jitender and Poonam were apprehended from Bilaspur in Utter Pradesh and produced before respective court. Poonam refuse to undergo any medical examination. She did not state any thing against Jitender in her statement before the Magistrate under section 164 of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. Thereafter Jitender was sent to Juvenile Home. Subsequently, Poonam gave in writing that she had left her parents home by her own will and went along with Jitender. The court sent Poonam to Nari Niketan for some time. Then on 17.05.2010, Poonam’s custody was handed over to her Parents. Thereafter, on 15.06.2010 Jitendre was released. Subsequently, he demanded cudtody of her wife by filing writ petition in Delhi High Court. Now argue for the both side and also the law and procedure in the aforesaid matter. Some the issues are listed below and are not limited to the below mentioned issues. These issues are as follows: 1) Whether Jitender is lible for the kidnapping of Poonam from her legal guardian? 2) Whether the marriage is voidable under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955? 3) Whether the Jitender is liable under section 376 of I.P.C, 1960? 4) Whether Poonam must be sent with Jitender under Guardian and Wards Act, 1890?

Horror Story Essay

It was a wonderful day in southern Spain and Sara and Kevin was out for a walk in the mouintains on their last vacation day. The view was extrodernery, olive plantings turning the otherwise dry land green and small white houses forming tiny villages, everything bathing in the strong Andalusian sunlight. As they walked upon an old path with a high cliff on the left-hand-side they passed a yellow sign with some text and the cliff painted in black, but since neither of them spoke Spanish they thought nothing of it. They walked on by and enjoyed each others companies very much, holding hands and talking about their holiday. Suddenly Sara stopped and claimed that she heard a noice of a rock falling down from the mountain beside them, but Kevin assured her that it was perfectly okay for them to continue their walk, since he was enjoying it so much. Just a second after he spoke those words a loud noise shoke the ground and before they even had time to react, massive rocks were flying down f rom the cliff just beside them. They threw themselves against a big tree next to the path as rocks kept falling down and dust started to fill the air. The horrible moment seemed to last forever†¦.. At last it stopped, and everything turned dead silence. After a few seconds a voice was heard shouting: ‘’Sara , are you okay? Where are you? It was Kevin ofcourse. He was lying under the tree, and seemed to be safe and sound despite the horrible incident. A few seconds went by without an answer from Sara. He started panicing and shouting, even louder and more anxious than before. Then silently, but still, a wage sound was heard. Kevin jumped up from the place he was lying on and started to look around. There, on the path, under a pile of rocks he saw a red thing but he couldn’t distinguish what it was. Coming closer, he saw that Sara was lying there and that the red was from her T-shirt which she wore that day. He quickly grabbed the biggest rock on top and started to push, at first it was all still which made Kevin again to panic. With all his force he pushed once again and now it slowly started to move and finally, after an heroic effort the rock slid off and Sara could get loose. She miraculously was also without any severe injuries and hugged Kevin harder than ever before, and they agreed that they won’t ignore signs they don’t understand ever again.

How to Find a Job After Being an Entrepreneur

How to Find a Job After Being an Entrepreneur Jason Alba, creator of JibberJobber.com, has literally written a book on how to make your own niche in the working world as a self-employed entrepreneur, but he also knows that being your own boss isn’t the best option all of the time. Sometimes it’s a question of timing, prioritizing a stable paycheck over following your bliss, family crisis taking precedence, or a market crash, etc. And he has some reassurance for you. It’s ok! You can quit one enterprise and seek out a job in someone else’s employ, without being a quitter or giving up on your dream. Take it from someone who’s lived it:Whether you are a cog in someone else’s wheel, or you create the next Facebook, you have value. Â  And as I mentioned earlier, circumstances change. Â  Maybe your role as cog today will lead you to successful entrepreneur in the future. Â  Or maybe you’ll be a great cog, with a great career, with financial stability and all the joys that can come fr om having a fulfilled life.Shuttering your small business, with all the blood, sweat, tears, and time you’ve sunk into it, can feel like failure–but it doesn’t have to. You too may have the heart of an entrepreneur, but thanks to timing and external circumstances, it may be just what you and your family need to take down that shingle and exchange it for a company ID. It doesn’t mean you’re done inventing, planning for the future, or directing your own life. Be ready for the right opportunity when it calls, and trust that you’re doing your best. Document all your responsibilities, risk-taking and successes in your next stellar resume, and take that confidence into your next job interview. Entrepreneurship will be waiting for you when you get back.When an Entrepreneur Quits and Has to Find a JobRead More at Jibberjobber

List of Organs Damaged by Smoking Expanded

List of Organs Damaged by Smoking Expanded Smoking causes diseases in nearly every organ of the body, according to a comprehensive report on smoking and health from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Published 40 years after the surgeon generals first report on smoking which concluded that smoking was a definite cause of three serious diseases this newest report finds that cigarette smoking is conclusively linked to diseases such as leukemia, cataracts, pneumonia, and cancers of the cervix, kidney, pancreas, and stomach. Weve known for decades that smoking is bad for your health, but this report shows that its even worse than we knew, said U.S. Surgeon General Richard H. Carmona in a press release. The toxins from cigarette smoke go everywhere the blood flows. Im hoping this new information will help motivate people to quit smoking and convince young people not to start in the first place. According to the report, smoking kills an estimated 440,000 Americans each year. On average, men who smoke cut their lives short by 13.2 years, and female smokers lose 14.5 years. The economic toll exceeds $157 billion each year in the United States $75 billion in direct medical costs and $82 billion in lost productivity. We need to cut smoking in this country and around the world, HHS Secretary Tommy G. Thompson said. Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death and disease, costing us too many lives, too many dollars, and too many tears. If we are going to be serious about improving health and preventing disease we must continue to drive down tobacco use. And we must prevent our youth from taking up this dangerous habit. In 1964, the Surgeon Generals report announced medical research showing that smoking was a definite cause of cancers of the lung and larynx (voice box) in men and chronic bronchitis in both men and women. Later reports concluded that smoking causes a number of other diseases such as cancers of the bladder, esophagus, mouth, and throat; cardiovascular diseases; and reproductive effects. The report, The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, expands the list of illness and conditions linked to smoking. The new illnesses and diseases are cataracts, pneumonia, acute myeloid leukemia, abdominal aortic aneurysm, stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, cervical cancer, kidney cancer and periodontitis. Statistics indicate that more than 12 million Americans have died from smoking since the 1964 report of the surgeon general, and another 25 million Americans alive today will most likely die of a smoking-related illness. The reports release comes in advance of World No Tobacco Day, an annual event on May 31 that focuses global attention on the health hazards of tobacco use. The goals of World No Tobacco Day are to raise awareness about the dangers of tobacco use, encourage people not to use tobacco, motivate users to quit and encourage countries to implement comprehensive tobacco control programs. Impacts of Smoking on Overall Health The report concludes that smoking reduces the overall health of smokers, contributing to such conditions as hip fractures, complications from diabetes, increased wound infections following surgery, and a wide range of reproductive complications. For every premature death caused each year by smoking, there are at least 20 smokers living with a serious smoking-related illness. Another major conclusion, consistent with recent findings of other scientific studies, is that smoking so-called low-tar or low-nicotine cigarettes does not offer any health benefit over smoking regular or full-flavor cigarettes. There is no safe cigarette, whether it is called light, ultra-light, or any other name, Dr. Carmona said. The science is clear: the only way to avoid the health hazards of smoking is to quit completely or to never start smoking. The report concludes that quitting smoking has immediate and long-term benefits, reducing risks for diseases caused by smoking and improving health in general. Within minutes and hours after smokers inhale that last cigarette, their bodies begin a series of changes that continue for years, Dr. Carmona said. Among these health improvements are a drop in heart rate, improved circulation, and reduced risk of heart attack, lung cancer, and stroke. By quitting smoking today a smoker can assure a healthier tomorrow. Dr. Carmona said it is never too late to stop smoking. Quitting smoking at age 65 or older reduces by nearly 50 percent a persons risk of dying of a smoking-related disease. Unexpected Organs Damaged by Smoking Aside from the major organs- heart, lungs, brain, stomach, etc.- cigarette smoking and excessive exposure to secondhand smoke can cause damage to some unexpected parts of the body, according to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). Ears: By reducing the flow of oxygen to the cochlea, a snail-shaped organ in the inner ear, smoking can damage the cochlea, resulting in mild to moderate hearing loss.   Eyes: Besides increasing the risk of blindness from cataracts, nicotine from cigarettes reduces the body’s ability to produce the chemical necessary for being able to see at night, especially dangerous when driving after dark. Mouth: Long known for causing disfiguring and potentially fatal oral cancers, cigarette smoke is now known to cause smokers to have more mouth sores, ulcers and gum diseases than non-smokers. In addition, smokers are more likely to have tooth decay and lose their teeth at a younger age. Skin and Face: By causing the skin to become dry and lose its elasticity, smoking can lead to stretch marks and wrinkles. By their early 30s, many regular smokers have already developed deep wrinkles around their mouth and eyes. According to the NHLBI, quitting smoking can protect the skin from premature aging.

Imago Dei Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Imago Dei - Research Paper Example In this attempt, Christianity, Judaism and Islam consider mankind as an image of God or consider them being created in the image of God. Genesis and Psalm are the Old Testament that are widely accepted and used as reference while discussing Imago Dei. Other testament passages are James 3:9 and 1 Corinthians 11:7. In order to understand the definition of Imago Dei, it is important to consider the actual meaning that can be derived out of this term, its theological aspects and human attributes that are perceived as a reflection of God and other perspectives present related to its functional view, relational capacity, humankind’s destiny and intellectual formation. Imago Dei not only emphasizes on religious aspects of this notion but also attempts to derive a scientific view out of this conception. In specific contexts, Christianity provides four definitions of Imago Dei. According to these definitions, humans bear similarity to God, they are God’s counterpart in this univ erse, human have dominion in this universe, and they are God’s representatives2. Substantive View of Imago Dei According to Gardoski, content and context of Genesis 1:26 help in viewing Imago Dei in a substantive manner. This substantive view illustrates that God has provided man with intelligence, volition, morality and spirituality. These characteristics helps man in operating as God on earth and this is how God has restored himself in creation of man which also differentiates him from other living beings. These spiritual and non-material aspects when combine with a physical body form a human in a holistic view3. Existence of man, his ability to function independently and rule the land does not make him capable of being a reflection of God. Instead, God gave him this body as a vessel or mean to enjoy the resources provided to him. However, along with these earthly blessings, he is also given an opportunity to exercise two significant corollaries of God’s image. These corollaries demand man to rule over other creation as the representative of God in whom all the trust and power of God has been bestowed along with enjoying cordial relationship with the creator and his creations. These corollaries provide us an indication as to why God made man his representative and created him in his image. Hence, this body provided to man is just a mean of fulfilling God’s will4. As far as view of a fallen man is concerned, a fallen man is a sinner who has digressed from the path of God but remains God’s creation and thus, inherits a reflection of God. However, for a fallen man, it is important to renew himself to be and act like God and live a life as God intends man to live. On the other hand, Christianity renders Jesus Christ as an example of restoration of Godly image in man and salvation believers expect to renew themselves in the same manner. Although attempt of seeking salvation in Jesus Christ does not restore the same image of God instead it affects the behavior and mannerism of the believer to match the conduct of God. Substantive view further illustrates that man attempts to match his actions to God’s and tries to seek conformity even in the daily life activities. Functional View of Imago Dei Imago Dei helps in identifying the functional purpose of humankind and his existence in a corporate sense. Hence, valuation of mankind can be performed and assessed. According to excerpts of Genesis in Klasson’

A New Wave of Competitors Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A New Wave of Competitors - Case Study Example The company mainly targets the wealthy and high income customers that have an average income that is at least 12 percent higher than the rest of the population and currently Reed owns 14 percent of the market share. Reed Supermarkets has a reputation of around 80 years for its service as a supermarket chain. Reed is now known nationwide and is serving a huge population. This creates a competitive advantage for the company and places them at an upper position relative to its competitors. The layout of the stores of Reed Supermarkets is attractively planned. Attractive stores and good service allowed Reed to differentiate itself from other competitors in the industry. Among the factors the most distinguishing are long store hours and short time for checkout, adequate number of staff, elegant and creative serving-case displays, extensive customer service and runners carrying bags of the customers to their cars. Customers are not required to provide tips to the staff while leaving. The p laces in which the stores are located show high population growth and even in many of these places, the growth rate of population is above the average rate of growth in the rest of the country. This shows that there is high prospect for the company to increase store traffic. The store visibility is also enhanced since large number of customer would visit the store and they would act as word of mouth promoter. Weaknesses Reed offers high quality products to its customers, but, according to the perception of a considerably large segment of the target customer, prices charged by Reeds is high. Therefore only a selected slice of the market can buy products from its stores. There is no harmony among the management of the company about the appropriate strategy that must be implemented for increasing market share. Contradiction exists among managers about discounts, high-margin items, introduction of low price specials and double couponing. On this issue, they have not been able to choose the most apt solution from the different opinions provided by each of them. The company has drawn a line on its capital expenditure for at least the coming two years starting from 2011. Such freezing on capital expenditure would affect the operations and growth path of the company. In order to meet higher revenue objectives more stores have to be opened. However, stringent capital expenditure policy might hamper such ambitions and impair the growth of the business. Opportunities Political/Legal The supermarket industry in the USA faces the support of strong lobbying form farm groups, transporters, and food processors. This facilitates the supermarket by removing barriers to trade, maintaining symmetry in information sharing across the market and allowing smooth expansion. Economic The economy of the USA has the GDP of 15.94 trillion (according to 2012 estimate). It is a developed country and therefore has the ready ground for development of flourishing supermarkets. Columbus, being situated in the largest state in the United States of America therefore offers a good opportunity for growth to Reed. The average citizen in the state has a high purchasing power. Socio-cultural There is an increasing trend among the American consumers that they are gradually becoming more health conscious besides being price sensitive. The emerging trend

Recruitment and Staff Selection Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Recruitment and Staff Selection - Case Study Example The ideal hiring process will involve recruitment on the basis of merit only. Any kind of bias or prejudice on the basis of gender, race or ethnicity cannot be allowed to dilute a recruitment or selection process if an ideal hiring process is to be established. The problems in achieving an ideal hiring system occur because human beings are in charge of hiring. They have predispositions and they cannot remain objective at all times. This is a major impediment in achieving an ideal recruiting process. Hiring process should also be such that equal opportunities are given to everyone. Whether hiring process is internal or external in nature all applicants should be allowed to participate and they should be treated equally. An ideal hiring process also does not involve one man show. A group of employees or managers can be less bias then an individual manager because one man will not be allowed to take matters in his or her own hand and promote or hire anyone he or she wants. Equal opportunity should be the backbone of an ideal hiring process because only then it can serve the organization in the best possible way. Ideal hiring process also allows any applicant to question why his application for job was denied. This is a right that most employees are unaware of. They should be informed about the decision and the reasons for not selecting them should be disclosed. Only then Hiring process can be made crystal clear from dilutions of discrimination and personal favors. Recruitment process should also efficient. The process should not take a long time because organizations cannot waste a great amount of time on recruitment. Hiring process should be ethical, yes, but it should also be cost effective so that interests of all parties are served to the best. Costs should be kept in mind but this does not mean any compromise should be made on ethical standards. Many steps can be

Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and CDMA Advantages

Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and CDMA Advantages INTRODUCTION ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS The signal is initially generated is in the form of an analog electrical voltage or current, produced for example by a microphone or some other type of transducer. The output from the readout system of a CD (compact disc) player, the data is already in digital form. An analog signal must be converted into digital form before DSP techniques can be applied. An analog electrical voltage signal, for example, can be digitized using an electronic circuit called an analog-to-digital converter or ADC. This generates a digital output as a stream of binary numbers whose values represent the electrical voltage input to the device at each sampling instant. Digital signal processing (DSP)-digital representation of signals and the use of digital processors to analyze, modify, or extract information from signals. Many signals in DSP are derived from analogue signals which have been sampled at regular intervals and converted into digital form. The key advantages of DSP over analogue processing are Guaranteed accuracy (determined by the number of bits used) Perfect reproducibility No drift in performance due to temperature or age Takes advantage of advances in semiconductor technology Greater flexibility (can be reprogrammed without modifying hardware) Superior performance (linear phase response possible, and filtering algorithms can be made adaptive) Sometimes information may already be in digital form. There are however (still) some disadvantages Speed and cost (DSP design and hardware may be expensive, especially with high bandwidth signals) Finite word length problems (limited number of bits may cause degradation). Application areas of DSP are considerable: Image processing (pattern recognition, robotic vision, image enhancement, facsimile, satellite weather map, animation) Instrumentation and control (spectrum analysis, position and rate control, noise reduction, data compression) Speech and audio (speech recognition, speech synthesis, text to speech, digital audio, equalisation) Military (secure communication, radar processing, sonar processing, missile guidance) Telecommunications (echo cancellation, adaptive equalisation, spread spectrum, video conferencing, data communication) Biomedical (patient monitoring, scanners, EEG brain mappers, ECG analysis, X-ray storage and enhancement). INTRODUCTION TO CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a radically new concept in wireless communications. It has gained widespread international acceptance by cellular radio system operators as an upgrade that will dramatically increase both their system capacity and the service quality. It has likewise been chosen for deployment by the majority of the winners of the United States Personal Communications System spectrum auctions. It may seem, however, mysterious for those who arent familiar with it. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum, a family of digital communication techniques that have been used in military applications for many years. The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same data rate. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI). It has a history that goes back to the early days of World War II. The use of CDMA for civilian mobile radio applications is novel. It was proposed theoretically in the late 1940s, but the practical application in the civilian marketplace did not take place until 40 years later. Commercial applications became possible because of two evolutionary developments. One was the availability of very low cost, high density digital integrated circuits, which reduce the size, weight, and cost of the subscriber stations to an acceptably low level. The other was the realization that optimal multiple access communication requires that all user stations regulate their transmitter powers to the lowest that will achieve adequate signal quality. CDMA changes the nature of the subscriber station from a predominately analog device to a predominately digital device. Old-fashioned radio receivers separate stations or channels by filtering in the frequency domain. CDMA receivers do not eliminate analog processing entirely, but they separate communication channels by means of a pseudorandom modulation that is applied and removed in the digital domain, not on the basis of frequency. Multiple users occupy the same frequency band. This universal frequency reuse is not fortuitous. On the contrary, it is crucial to the very high spectral efficiency that is the hallmark of CDMA. Other discussions in these pages show why this is true. CDMA is altering the face of cellular and PCS communication by: Dramatically improving the telephone traffic capacity Dramatically improving the voice quality and eliminating the audible effects of multipath fading Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures Providing reliable transport mechanism for data communications, such as facsimile and internet traffic Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given amount of traffic Simplifying site selection Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell sites are needed Reducing average transmitted power Reducing interference to other electronic devices Reducing potential health risks Commercially introduced in 1995, CDMA quickly became one of the worlds fastest growing wireless technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union selected CDMA as the industry standard for new third-generation (3G) wireless systems. Many leading wireless carriers are now building or upgrading to 3G CDMA networks in order to provide more capacity for voice traffic, along with high-speed data capabilities. DS_CDMA Multiple access systems based on DS CDMA have achieved increasing significance for mobile communications applications. A promising concept is based on DS_CDMA applying MRC at the receiver. MRC takes advantage of the channel diversity to combat the multipath fading. However the capacity of a DS_CDMA system is limited by both multi-user interference and inter symbol interference ISI in high data rate applications. OFDM is applied to combat the frequency selectivity of the channel using a simple one tap equalizer Further more OFDM prevents the ISI and inter carrier interference ICI by inserting a guard interval between adjacent OFDM symbols OFDM is typically used for audio TV and HDTV transmission over terrestrial channels and achieves high spectral efficiency. The CMDA Technology overview FDMA In Frequency Division Multiple Access, the frequency band is divided in slots. Each user gets one frequency slot assigned that is used at will. It could be compared to AM or FM broadcasting radio where each station has a frequency assigned. FDMA demands good filtering. TDMA In Time Division Multiple Access, the frequency band is not partitioned but users are allowed to use it only in predefined intervals of time, one at a time. Thus, TDMA demands synchronization among the users. CDMA CDMA, for Code Division Multiple Access, is different from its traditional ways in which it does not allocate frequency or time in user slots but gives the right to use both to all users simultaneously. To do this, it uses a technique known as Spread Spectrum . In effect, each user is assigned a code,which spreads its signal bandwidth in such a way that only the same code can recover it at the receiver end. This method has the property that the unwanted signals with different codes get spread even more by the process, making them like noise to the receiver . Spread Spectrum Spread Spectrum is a mean of transmission where the data occupies a larger bandwidth than necessary. Bandwidth spreading is accomplished before the transmission through the use of a code, which is independent of the transmitted data. The same code is used to demodulate the data at the receiving end. The following figure illustrate the spreading done on the data signal x(t) by the spreading signal c(t) resulting in the message signal to be transmitted, m(t). Originally for military use to avoid jamming (interference created on purpose to make a communication channel unusable), spread spectrum modulation is now used in personal communication systems for its superior performance in an interference dominated environment . Definition of Spread Spectrum: A transmission technique in which a pseudo-noise code, independent of the information data, is employed as a modulation waveform to â€Å"spread† the signal energy over a bandwidth much greater than the signal information bandwidth. At the receiver the signal is â€Å"despread† using a synchronized replica of the pseudo-noise code. Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum System: The Principal types of Spread Spectrum are Direct Sequence (DS), and Frequency Hopping (FH). An over view of these systems is hereby given: Pseudo shift of the phase pseudo shift of the frequency Coherent demodulation noncoherent Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) A pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator, is used in conjunction with an M-ary PSK modulation to shift the phase of the PSK signal pseudo randomly, at the chipping rate Rc (=1/Tc) a rate that is integer multiple of the symbol rate Rs (=1/Ts). The transmitted bandwidth is determined by the chip rate and by the base band filtering. The implementation limits the maximum chip rate Rc (clock rate) and thus the maximum spreading. The PSK modulation scheme requires a coherent demodulation. PN code length that is much longer than a data symbol, so that a different chip pattern is associated with each symbol. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum A Pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator is used in conjuction with an M-ary FSK modulation to shift the carrier frequency of the FSK signal pseudurandomly, at the hopping rate Rh. The transmitted signal occupies a number of frequencies in time, each for a period of time Th (= 1/Rh), referred as dwell time. FHSS divides the available bandwidth into N channels and hops between these channels according to the PN sequence. At each frequency hop time the PN generator feeds the frequency synthesizer a frequency word FW (a sequence of n chips) which dictates one of 2n frequency position fhl . Transmitter and receiver follows the same frequency hop pattern. The transmitted bandwidth is determined by the lowest and highest hop position by the bandwidth per hop position (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  fch). For a given hop, instantaneous occupied bandwidth is the conventional M-FSK, which is typically much smaller than Wss. So the FHSS signal is a narrowband signal, all transmission power is concentrated on one channel. Averaged over many hops, the FH/M-FSK spectrum occupies the entire spread spectrum bandwidth. Because the bandwidth of an FHSS system only depends on the tuning range, it can be hopped over a much wider bandwidth than an DSSS system. Since the hops generally result in phase discontinuity (depending on the particular implementation) a noncoherent demodulation is done at receiver. With slow hopping there are multiple data symbol per hop and with fast hopping there are multiple hops per data symbol. 3.3 Basic principle of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum For BPSK modulation the building blocks of a DSSS system are: Input: Binary data dt with symbol rate Rs = 1/Ts (=bitrate Rb for BPSK) Pseudo-noise code pnt with chip rate Rc = 1/Tc (an integer of Rs) Spreading: In the transmitter, the binary data dt (for BPSK, I and Q for QPSK) is ‘directly multiplied with the PN sequence pnt , which is independent of the binary data, to produce the transmitted baseband signal txb: txb = dt . pnt The effect of multiplication of dt with a PN sequence is to spread the baseband bandwidth Rs of dt to a baseband bandwidth of Rc. Despreading: The spread spectrum signal cannot be detected by a conventional narrowband receiver. In the receiver, the baseband signal rxb is multiplied with the PN sequence pnr . If pnr = pnt and synchronized to the PN sequence in the received data, than the recovered binary data is produced on dr. The effect of multiplication of the spread spectrum signal rxb with the PN sequence pnt used in the transmitter is to despread the bandwidth of rxb to Rs . If pnr ≠  pnt , than there is no dispreading action. The signal dr has a spread spectrum. A receiver not knowing the PN sequence of the transmitter can not reproduce the transmitted data. Performance in the presence of interference: To simplify the presence of interference, the spread spectrum system is considered for baseband BPSK communication (without filtering). The received signal rxb of the transmitted signal txb plus an additive inteferance i (noise, other users, jammer,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦): rxb = t xb + i = dt . pnt + i To recover the original data dt the received signal rx0 is multiplied with a locally generated PN sequence pnr that is an exact replica of that used in the transmitter (that is pnr = pnt and synchronized) The multiplier output is therefore given by: dr = rxb . pnt = dt . pnt . pnt + i . pnt The data signal dt is multiplied twice by the PN sequence pnt , where as the unwanted inteferance i is multiplied only once. Due to the property of the PN sequence: pnt + pnt = +1 for all t The multiplier output becomes: dr = dt + i . pnt The data signal dr is reproduced at the multiplier output in the receiver, except for the inteferance represented by the additive term i . pnt . Multiplication of the inteferance by the locally generated PN sequence, means that the spreading code will affect the inteferance just as it did with the information bearing signal at the transmitter. Noise and inteferance, being uncorrelated with the PN sequence, becomes noise-like, increase in bandwidth and decrease in power density after the multiplier. After dispreading, the data component dt is narrow band (Rb) whereas the inteferance component is wideband (Rc). By applying the dr signal to a baseband (low-pass) filter with a band width just large enough to accommodate the recovery of the data signal, most of the inteferance component i is filtered out. The effect of inteferance is reduced by processing gain (Gp). Narrowband inteferance: The narrowband noise is spread by the multiplication with the PN sequence pnr of the receiver. The power density of the noise is reduced with respect to the despread data signal. Only 1/Gp of the original noise power is left in the information baseband (Rs). Spreading and dispreading enables a bandwidth trade for processing gain against narrow band interfering signals. Narrow band inteferance would disable conventional narrow band receivers. The essence behind the inteferance rejection capability of a spread spectrum system: the useful signal (data) gets multiplied twice by the PN sequence, but the inteferance signal get multiplied only once. Wideband interference: Multiplication of the received signal with the PN sequence of the receiver gets a selective despread of the data signal (smaller bandwidth, higher power density). The inteferance signal is uncorrelated with the PN sequence and is spread. Origin of wideband noise: Multiple Spread Spectrum user: multiple access mechanism. Gaussian Noise: There is no increase in SNR with spread spectrum: The large channel bandwidth (Rc instead of Rs) increase the received noise power with Gp: Ninfo = N0 . BWinfo à   Nss = N0 . BWss = Ninfo .Gp The spread spectrum signal has a lower power density than the directly transmitted signal. Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a methode of multiplexing (wireless) users distinct (orthogonal) codes. All users can transmit at the same time, and each is allocated the entire available frequency spectrum for transmission. CDMA is also known as Spread-Spectrum multiple access (SSMA). CDMA dose not require the bandwidth allocation of FDMA, nor the time synchronization of the individual users needed in TDMA. A CDMA user has full time and full bandwidth available, but the quality of the communication decreases with an increasing number of users (BER ). In CDMA each user: Has its own PN code Uses the same RF bandwidth Transmits simultaneously (asynchronous or synchronous) Correlation of the received baseband spread spectrum signal rxb with the PN sequence of user 1 only despreads the signal of user 1. The other user produces noise Nu for user 1. ACCESS SCHEMES For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency, so that each pair of communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of the time results in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections. MULTIPATH AND RAKE RECEIVERS One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays. This phenomenon is called multipath. FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band systems, cannot discriminate between the multipath arrivals, and resort to equalization to mitigate the negative effects of multipath. Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. CDMA subscriber units use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of several receivers. One of the receivers (fingers) constantly searches for different multipaths and feeds the information to the other three fingers. Each finger then demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath. The results are then combined together to make the signal stronger. Difference between TDMA vs CDMA. TDMA is Time Division Multiple Access, while CDMA is Code Division Multiple Access. Both technologies achieve the same goal of better utilization of the radio spectrum by allowing multiple users to share the same physical channel, but by using different methods and that is why the three of the four words in each acronym are identical. Both allow more than one person to carry out a conversation on the same frequency without causing interference. The two technologies differ in the way in which users share the common resource. In TDMA the channel is chopped up into sequential time slices. The data of each user is put on the channel in a round-robin fashion. In reality, only one user actually uses the channel at any given point of time, but he uses it only for short bursts. He then gives up the channel for a short duration to allow the other users to have their turn. This is similar to how a computer with just one processor runs multiple applications simultaneously. CDMA on the other hand allows everyone to transmit at the same time. With conventional methods of modulation techniques it would hav been simply not possible. What makes CDMA to allow all users to transmit simultaneously is a special type of digital modulation called Spread Spectrum. In this modulation technique users stream of bits is taken and splattered them across a very wide channel in a pseudo-random fashion. The pseudo part is very important here as at the receiver end the randomization must be undone in order to collect the bits together in a coherent order. For example consider a room full of couples, and each couple trying to carry on one-on-one conversations. In TDMA each couple takes their turn for talking and they keep their turns short by speaking only one sentence at a time. As there is always more one person speaking in the room at any given point of time, no one has to worry about being heard over the background din. In CDMA assume each couple talks simultaneously, but they all use different languages. The background din doesnt cause any real problem as none of the listeners understand any language other than that of the individual to whom they are listening. Voice Encoding At this point many people confuse two distinctly different issues involved in the transmission of digital audio. The first is the WAY in which the stream of bits is delivered from one end to the other. This part of the air interface is what makes one technology different from another. The second is the compression algorithm used to squeeze the audio into as small a stream of bits as possible. This latter component is known at the Voice Coder, or Vocoder for short. Another term commonly used is CODEC, which is a similar word to modem. It combines the terms COder and DECoder. Although each technology has chosen their own unique CODECs, there is no rule saying that one transmission method needs to use a specific CODEC. People often lump a technologys transmission method with its CODEC as though they were single entities. Voice encoding schemes differ slightly in their approach to the problem. Because of this, certain types of human voice work better with some CODECs than they do with others. The point to remember is that all PCS CODECs are compromises of some sort. Since human voices have such a fantastic range of pitch and tonal depth, one cannot expect any single compromise to handle each one equally well. This inability to cope with all types of voice at the same level does lead some people to choose one technology over another. All of the PCS technologies try to minimize battery consumption during calls by keeping the transmission of unnecessary data to a minimum. The phone decides whether or not you are presently speaking, or if the sound it hears is just background noise. If the phone determines that there is no intelligent data to transmit it blanks the audio and it reduces the transmitter duty cycle (in the case of TDMA) or the number of transmitted bits (in the case of CDMA). When the audio is blanked your caller would suddenly find themselves listening to dead air, and this may cause them to think the call has dropped. To avoid this psychological problem many service providers insert what is known as Comfort Noise during the blanked periods. Comfort Noise is synthesized white noise that tries to mimic the volume and structure of the real background noise. This fake background noise assures the caller that the connection is alive and well. However, in newer CODECs such as EVRC (used exclusively on CDMA systems) the background noise is generally suppressed even while the user is talking. This piece of magic makes it sound as though the cell phone user is not in a noisy environment at all. Under these conditions, Comfort Noise is neither necessary, nor desirable. DS-CDMA-INTRODUCTION While multiple access interference (MAI) by other users has been recognized as the capacity-limiting factor in direct sequence code-division multiple-access (DS-CDMA)-based cellular communication systems, multiuser approaches have largely alleviated the problem when the noise process is additive Gaussian. With the availability of multiuser detectors, inaccurate or inappropriate noise modelling assumptions seem to have become the issue again. Whereas multiuser detection has much to offer in the mobile- to-base station uplink, it does not at present appear to be feasible for the downlink due to the complexity involved and the lack of resistance against adjacent cell interference. Moreover, the few multiuser proposals for the downlink require the knowledge of all spreading codes, which is not possible in the tactical military environment, for instance. Enhanced single-user receivers equipped with adaptive filter banks deliver promising performance with reasonable complexity, especially in slowly varying channels. Thus, the performance of single-user detectors is still of interest, particularly in the presence of non-Gaussian noise. In both urban outdoor and indoor mobile radio environments, electromagnetic interference generated by man-made sources such as factories or power lines causes the noise to be of non-Gaussian nature. Large noise magnitudes are deemed very improbable by linear receivers, and consequently performance deterioration is experienced. It is therefore desirable to build systems that can maintain respectable functionality under a broad class of noise distributions, rather than strictly optimizing for the unrealistic Gaussian assumption. Such is the goal of robust detection and estimation theory, which aims to design systems that are suboptimal under nominal channel conditions (e.g., Gaussian channel) and yet do not face catastrophy when the noise distribution is not nominal (e.g., unlike linear schemes). Note that suboptimality here refers to very good performance that is slightly worse than that of the nominal-optimal detector/estimator. The direct sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) technique has been favourably considered for application in digital mobile cellular networks due to its potential to provide higher system capacity over conventional multiple access techniques. Unlike FDMA and TDMA capacities which are mostly limited by the bandwidth, the capacity of a CDMA system is mainly restricted by its interference level. Any reduction in interference produces a direct and linear increase in system capacity. Multiple access interference (MAI) caused by non-zero cross-correlation between different spreading sequences is the major type of interference limiting the CDMA system capacity. Much work has been done to characterize MAI, and to analyze and evaluate the CDMA system performance in the presence of MAI. Since the cross-correlation properties of most sets of spreading codes are either too complex to analyze or very difficult to compute when different transmissions are not synchronized, a random seque nce model. In the case of moderate to large processing gains, Gaussian distribution with variable variance is a good approximation for the MAI distribution. One of the approaches to reduce MAI is to employ orthogonal spreading sequences, and try to synchronize the transmissions at the chip level (quasi-synchronization). However, this is generally difficult to achieve in multipoint-to-point systems, such as the reverse link (mobile-to-base) of a cellular system, due to a lack of synchronization of the various mobile terminals, and the variable transmission delays. In this paper, a multi-carrier DS-CDMA (MCDS-CDMA) scheme is employed to facilitate the synchronization process, and thus reduce MAI. SYSTEM MODEL A model of the MS-DS-CDMA system for the kth user of a CDMA system is shown in the figure 1. TRANMSITTER MODEL At the transmitter the user‘s data stream dk(t) is divided into M interleaved sub streams and spread by a spreading sequence ck(t) to a fraction 1/M of the entire transmission bandwidth W. The resultant chip sequences are then used to modulate M carrier. The carrier frequencies ωm,m=1,2,M are equally spaced by the chip rate so that they are mutually orthogonal over one channel symbol interval T. Let R be the information rate and Rc be the carrier control code rate then the channel symbol interval is BER PERFORMANCE: MC-DS-CDMA system performance measured by bit error rate through analysis and simulation. Analysis: The BER is analysed based on the following: Ortoganal spreading sequences with rectangular pulse shape are applied. ÃŽ ¶k,k=1†¦K are independent of random variables distributd in (-ÃŽ ¶D,ÃŽ ¶D) WHERE ÃŽ ¶D=ÃŽ µD+Ï‚D.Given W and ÃŽ ¶D,M is chosen so that ÃŽ ¶D It is assumed that the fading parameters of the desired user . It is perfectly estimated so that the coherent detection and optimum soft decision decoding could be carried out at the receiver to make the problem analytically tractable. The fading amplitudes as independent Rayleigh random variables with equal second moments. The model is MATLAB INTRODUCTION: Matlab is a commercial Matrix Laboratory package which operates as an interactive programming environment. It is a mainstay of the Mathematics Department software lineup and is also available for PCs and Macintoshes and may be found on the CIRCA VAXes. Matlab is well adapted to numerical experiments since the underlying algorithms for Matlabs builtin functions and supplied m-files are based on the standard libraries LINPACK and EISPACK. Matlab program and script files always have filenames ending with .m; the programming language is exceptionally straightforward since almost every data object is assumed to be an array. Graphical output is available to supplement numerical results. IMREAD Read image from graphics file. A = IMREAD(FILENAME,FMT) reads a grayscale or color image from the file specified by the string FILENAME. If the file is not in the current directory, or in a directory on the MATLAB path, specify the full pathname. The text string FMT specifies the format of the file by its standard file extension. For example, specify gif Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and CDMA Advantages Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and CDMA Advantages INTRODUCTION ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS The signal is initially generated is in the form of an analog electrical voltage or current, produced for example by a microphone or some other type of transducer. The output from the readout system of a CD (compact disc) player, the data is already in digital form. An analog signal must be converted into digital form before DSP techniques can be applied. An analog electrical voltage signal, for example, can be digitized using an electronic circuit called an analog-to-digital converter or ADC. This generates a digital output as a stream of binary numbers whose values represent the electrical voltage input to the device at each sampling instant. Digital signal processing (DSP)-digital representation of signals and the use of digital processors to analyze, modify, or extract information from signals. Many signals in DSP are derived from analogue signals which have been sampled at regular intervals and converted into digital form. The key advantages of DSP over analogue processing are Guaranteed accuracy (determined by the number of bits used) Perfect reproducibility No drift in performance due to temperature or age Takes advantage of advances in semiconductor technology Greater flexibility (can be reprogrammed without modifying hardware) Superior performance (linear phase response possible, and filtering algorithms can be made adaptive) Sometimes information may already be in digital form. There are however (still) some disadvantages Speed and cost (DSP design and hardware may be expensive, especially with high bandwidth signals) Finite word length problems (limited number of bits may cause degradation). Application areas of DSP are considerable: Image processing (pattern recognition, robotic vision, image enhancement, facsimile, satellite weather map, animation) Instrumentation and control (spectrum analysis, position and rate control, noise reduction, data compression) Speech and audio (speech recognition, speech synthesis, text to speech, digital audio, equalisation) Military (secure communication, radar processing, sonar processing, missile guidance) Telecommunications (echo cancellation, adaptive equalisation, spread spectrum, video conferencing, data communication) Biomedical (patient monitoring, scanners, EEG brain mappers, ECG analysis, X-ray storage and enhancement). INTRODUCTION TO CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a radically new concept in wireless communications. It has gained widespread international acceptance by cellular radio system operators as an upgrade that will dramatically increase both their system capacity and the service quality. It has likewise been chosen for deployment by the majority of the winners of the United States Personal Communications System spectrum auctions. It may seem, however, mysterious for those who arent familiar with it. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum, a family of digital communication techniques that have been used in military applications for many years. The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same data rate. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI). It has a history that goes back to the early days of World War II. The use of CDMA for civilian mobile radio applications is novel. It was proposed theoretically in the late 1940s, but the practical application in the civilian marketplace did not take place until 40 years later. Commercial applications became possible because of two evolutionary developments. One was the availability of very low cost, high density digital integrated circuits, which reduce the size, weight, and cost of the subscriber stations to an acceptably low level. The other was the realization that optimal multiple access communication requires that all user stations regulate their transmitter powers to the lowest that will achieve adequate signal quality. CDMA changes the nature of the subscriber station from a predominately analog device to a predominately digital device. Old-fashioned radio receivers separate stations or channels by filtering in the frequency domain. CDMA receivers do not eliminate analog processing entirely, but they separate communication channels by means of a pseudorandom modulation that is applied and removed in the digital domain, not on the basis of frequency. Multiple users occupy the same frequency band. This universal frequency reuse is not fortuitous. On the contrary, it is crucial to the very high spectral efficiency that is the hallmark of CDMA. Other discussions in these pages show why this is true. CDMA is altering the face of cellular and PCS communication by: Dramatically improving the telephone traffic capacity Dramatically improving the voice quality and eliminating the audible effects of multipath fading Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures Providing reliable transport mechanism for data communications, such as facsimile and internet traffic Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given amount of traffic Simplifying site selection Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell sites are needed Reducing average transmitted power Reducing interference to other electronic devices Reducing potential health risks Commercially introduced in 1995, CDMA quickly became one of the worlds fastest growing wireless technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union selected CDMA as the industry standard for new third-generation (3G) wireless systems. Many leading wireless carriers are now building or upgrading to 3G CDMA networks in order to provide more capacity for voice traffic, along with high-speed data capabilities. DS_CDMA Multiple access systems based on DS CDMA have achieved increasing significance for mobile communications applications. A promising concept is based on DS_CDMA applying MRC at the receiver. MRC takes advantage of the channel diversity to combat the multipath fading. However the capacity of a DS_CDMA system is limited by both multi-user interference and inter symbol interference ISI in high data rate applications. OFDM is applied to combat the frequency selectivity of the channel using a simple one tap equalizer Further more OFDM prevents the ISI and inter carrier interference ICI by inserting a guard interval between adjacent OFDM symbols OFDM is typically used for audio TV and HDTV transmission over terrestrial channels and achieves high spectral efficiency. The CMDA Technology overview FDMA In Frequency Division Multiple Access, the frequency band is divided in slots. Each user gets one frequency slot assigned that is used at will. It could be compared to AM or FM broadcasting radio where each station has a frequency assigned. FDMA demands good filtering. TDMA In Time Division Multiple Access, the frequency band is not partitioned but users are allowed to use it only in predefined intervals of time, one at a time. Thus, TDMA demands synchronization among the users. CDMA CDMA, for Code Division Multiple Access, is different from its traditional ways in which it does not allocate frequency or time in user slots but gives the right to use both to all users simultaneously. To do this, it uses a technique known as Spread Spectrum . In effect, each user is assigned a code,which spreads its signal bandwidth in such a way that only the same code can recover it at the receiver end. This method has the property that the unwanted signals with different codes get spread even more by the process, making them like noise to the receiver . Spread Spectrum Spread Spectrum is a mean of transmission where the data occupies a larger bandwidth than necessary. Bandwidth spreading is accomplished before the transmission through the use of a code, which is independent of the transmitted data. The same code is used to demodulate the data at the receiving end. The following figure illustrate the spreading done on the data signal x(t) by the spreading signal c(t) resulting in the message signal to be transmitted, m(t). Originally for military use to avoid jamming (interference created on purpose to make a communication channel unusable), spread spectrum modulation is now used in personal communication systems for its superior performance in an interference dominated environment . Definition of Spread Spectrum: A transmission technique in which a pseudo-noise code, independent of the information data, is employed as a modulation waveform to â€Å"spread† the signal energy over a bandwidth much greater than the signal information bandwidth. At the receiver the signal is â€Å"despread† using a synchronized replica of the pseudo-noise code. Basic Principle of Spread Spectrum System: The Principal types of Spread Spectrum are Direct Sequence (DS), and Frequency Hopping (FH). An over view of these systems is hereby given: Pseudo shift of the phase pseudo shift of the frequency Coherent demodulation noncoherent Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) A pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator, is used in conjunction with an M-ary PSK modulation to shift the phase of the PSK signal pseudo randomly, at the chipping rate Rc (=1/Tc) a rate that is integer multiple of the symbol rate Rs (=1/Ts). The transmitted bandwidth is determined by the chip rate and by the base band filtering. The implementation limits the maximum chip rate Rc (clock rate) and thus the maximum spreading. The PSK modulation scheme requires a coherent demodulation. PN code length that is much longer than a data symbol, so that a different chip pattern is associated with each symbol. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum A Pseudo-noise sequence pnt generated at the modulator is used in conjuction with an M-ary FSK modulation to shift the carrier frequency of the FSK signal pseudurandomly, at the hopping rate Rh. The transmitted signal occupies a number of frequencies in time, each for a period of time Th (= 1/Rh), referred as dwell time. FHSS divides the available bandwidth into N channels and hops between these channels according to the PN sequence. At each frequency hop time the PN generator feeds the frequency synthesizer a frequency word FW (a sequence of n chips) which dictates one of 2n frequency position fhl . Transmitter and receiver follows the same frequency hop pattern. The transmitted bandwidth is determined by the lowest and highest hop position by the bandwidth per hop position (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  fch). For a given hop, instantaneous occupied bandwidth is the conventional M-FSK, which is typically much smaller than Wss. So the FHSS signal is a narrowband signal, all transmission power is concentrated on one channel. Averaged over many hops, the FH/M-FSK spectrum occupies the entire spread spectrum bandwidth. Because the bandwidth of an FHSS system only depends on the tuning range, it can be hopped over a much wider bandwidth than an DSSS system. Since the hops generally result in phase discontinuity (depending on the particular implementation) a noncoherent demodulation is done at receiver. With slow hopping there are multiple data symbol per hop and with fast hopping there are multiple hops per data symbol. 3.3 Basic principle of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum For BPSK modulation the building blocks of a DSSS system are: Input: Binary data dt with symbol rate Rs = 1/Ts (=bitrate Rb for BPSK) Pseudo-noise code pnt with chip rate Rc = 1/Tc (an integer of Rs) Spreading: In the transmitter, the binary data dt (for BPSK, I and Q for QPSK) is ‘directly multiplied with the PN sequence pnt , which is independent of the binary data, to produce the transmitted baseband signal txb: txb = dt . pnt The effect of multiplication of dt with a PN sequence is to spread the baseband bandwidth Rs of dt to a baseband bandwidth of Rc. Despreading: The spread spectrum signal cannot be detected by a conventional narrowband receiver. In the receiver, the baseband signal rxb is multiplied with the PN sequence pnr . If pnr = pnt and synchronized to the PN sequence in the received data, than the recovered binary data is produced on dr. The effect of multiplication of the spread spectrum signal rxb with the PN sequence pnt used in the transmitter is to despread the bandwidth of rxb to Rs . If pnr ≠  pnt , than there is no dispreading action. The signal dr has a spread spectrum. A receiver not knowing the PN sequence of the transmitter can not reproduce the transmitted data. Performance in the presence of interference: To simplify the presence of interference, the spread spectrum system is considered for baseband BPSK communication (without filtering). The received signal rxb of the transmitted signal txb plus an additive inteferance i (noise, other users, jammer,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦): rxb = t xb + i = dt . pnt + i To recover the original data dt the received signal rx0 is multiplied with a locally generated PN sequence pnr that is an exact replica of that used in the transmitter (that is pnr = pnt and synchronized) The multiplier output is therefore given by: dr = rxb . pnt = dt . pnt . pnt + i . pnt The data signal dt is multiplied twice by the PN sequence pnt , where as the unwanted inteferance i is multiplied only once. Due to the property of the PN sequence: pnt + pnt = +1 for all t The multiplier output becomes: dr = dt + i . pnt The data signal dr is reproduced at the multiplier output in the receiver, except for the inteferance represented by the additive term i . pnt . Multiplication of the inteferance by the locally generated PN sequence, means that the spreading code will affect the inteferance just as it did with the information bearing signal at the transmitter. Noise and inteferance, being uncorrelated with the PN sequence, becomes noise-like, increase in bandwidth and decrease in power density after the multiplier. After dispreading, the data component dt is narrow band (Rb) whereas the inteferance component is wideband (Rc). By applying the dr signal to a baseband (low-pass) filter with a band width just large enough to accommodate the recovery of the data signal, most of the inteferance component i is filtered out. The effect of inteferance is reduced by processing gain (Gp). Narrowband inteferance: The narrowband noise is spread by the multiplication with the PN sequence pnr of the receiver. The power density of the noise is reduced with respect to the despread data signal. Only 1/Gp of the original noise power is left in the information baseband (Rs). Spreading and dispreading enables a bandwidth trade for processing gain against narrow band interfering signals. Narrow band inteferance would disable conventional narrow band receivers. The essence behind the inteferance rejection capability of a spread spectrum system: the useful signal (data) gets multiplied twice by the PN sequence, but the inteferance signal get multiplied only once. Wideband interference: Multiplication of the received signal with the PN sequence of the receiver gets a selective despread of the data signal (smaller bandwidth, higher power density). The inteferance signal is uncorrelated with the PN sequence and is spread. Origin of wideband noise: Multiple Spread Spectrum user: multiple access mechanism. Gaussian Noise: There is no increase in SNR with spread spectrum: The large channel bandwidth (Rc instead of Rs) increase the received noise power with Gp: Ninfo = N0 . BWinfo à   Nss = N0 . BWss = Ninfo .Gp The spread spectrum signal has a lower power density than the directly transmitted signal. Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a methode of multiplexing (wireless) users distinct (orthogonal) codes. All users can transmit at the same time, and each is allocated the entire available frequency spectrum for transmission. CDMA is also known as Spread-Spectrum multiple access (SSMA). CDMA dose not require the bandwidth allocation of FDMA, nor the time synchronization of the individual users needed in TDMA. A CDMA user has full time and full bandwidth available, but the quality of the communication decreases with an increasing number of users (BER ). In CDMA each user: Has its own PN code Uses the same RF bandwidth Transmits simultaneously (asynchronous or synchronous) Correlation of the received baseband spread spectrum signal rxb with the PN sequence of user 1 only despreads the signal of user 1. The other user produces noise Nu for user 1. ACCESS SCHEMES For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency, so that each pair of communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of the time results in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections. MULTIPATH AND RAKE RECEIVERS One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays. This phenomenon is called multipath. FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band systems, cannot discriminate between the multipath arrivals, and resort to equalization to mitigate the negative effects of multipath. Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. CDMA subscriber units use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of several receivers. One of the receivers (fingers) constantly searches for different multipaths and feeds the information to the other three fingers. Each finger then demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath. The results are then combined together to make the signal stronger. Difference between TDMA vs CDMA. TDMA is Time Division Multiple Access, while CDMA is Code Division Multiple Access. Both technologies achieve the same goal of better utilization of the radio spectrum by allowing multiple users to share the same physical channel, but by using different methods and that is why the three of the four words in each acronym are identical. Both allow more than one person to carry out a conversation on the same frequency without causing interference. The two technologies differ in the way in which users share the common resource. In TDMA the channel is chopped up into sequential time slices. The data of each user is put on the channel in a round-robin fashion. In reality, only one user actually uses the channel at any given point of time, but he uses it only for short bursts. He then gives up the channel for a short duration to allow the other users to have their turn. This is similar to how a computer with just one processor runs multiple applications simultaneously. CDMA on the other hand allows everyone to transmit at the same time. With conventional methods of modulation techniques it would hav been simply not possible. What makes CDMA to allow all users to transmit simultaneously is a special type of digital modulation called Spread Spectrum. In this modulation technique users stream of bits is taken and splattered them across a very wide channel in a pseudo-random fashion. The pseudo part is very important here as at the receiver end the randomization must be undone in order to collect the bits together in a coherent order. For example consider a room full of couples, and each couple trying to carry on one-on-one conversations. In TDMA each couple takes their turn for talking and they keep their turns short by speaking only one sentence at a time. As there is always more one person speaking in the room at any given point of time, no one has to worry about being heard over the background din. In CDMA assume each couple talks simultaneously, but they all use different languages. The background din doesnt cause any real problem as none of the listeners understand any language other than that of the individual to whom they are listening. Voice Encoding At this point many people confuse two distinctly different issues involved in the transmission of digital audio. The first is the WAY in which the stream of bits is delivered from one end to the other. This part of the air interface is what makes one technology different from another. The second is the compression algorithm used to squeeze the audio into as small a stream of bits as possible. This latter component is known at the Voice Coder, or Vocoder for short. Another term commonly used is CODEC, which is a similar word to modem. It combines the terms COder and DECoder. Although each technology has chosen their own unique CODECs, there is no rule saying that one transmission method needs to use a specific CODEC. People often lump a technologys transmission method with its CODEC as though they were single entities. Voice encoding schemes differ slightly in their approach to the problem. Because of this, certain types of human voice work better with some CODECs than they do with others. The point to remember is that all PCS CODECs are compromises of some sort. Since human voices have such a fantastic range of pitch and tonal depth, one cannot expect any single compromise to handle each one equally well. This inability to cope with all types of voice at the same level does lead some people to choose one technology over another. All of the PCS technologies try to minimize battery consumption during calls by keeping the transmission of unnecessary data to a minimum. The phone decides whether or not you are presently speaking, or if the sound it hears is just background noise. If the phone determines that there is no intelligent data to transmit it blanks the audio and it reduces the transmitter duty cycle (in the case of TDMA) or the number of transmitted bits (in the case of CDMA). When the audio is blanked your caller would suddenly find themselves listening to dead air, and this may cause them to think the call has dropped. To avoid this psychological problem many service providers insert what is known as Comfort Noise during the blanked periods. Comfort Noise is synthesized white noise that tries to mimic the volume and structure of the real background noise. This fake background noise assures the caller that the connection is alive and well. However, in newer CODECs such as EVRC (used exclusively on CDMA systems) the background noise is generally suppressed even while the user is talking. This piece of magic makes it sound as though the cell phone user is not in a noisy environment at all. Under these conditions, Comfort Noise is neither necessary, nor desirable. DS-CDMA-INTRODUCTION While multiple access interference (MAI) by other users has been recognized as the capacity-limiting factor in direct sequence code-division multiple-access (DS-CDMA)-based cellular communication systems, multiuser approaches have largely alleviated the problem when the noise process is additive Gaussian. With the availability of multiuser detectors, inaccurate or inappropriate noise modelling assumptions seem to have become the issue again. Whereas multiuser detection has much to offer in the mobile- to-base station uplink, it does not at present appear to be feasible for the downlink due to the complexity involved and the lack of resistance against adjacent cell interference. Moreover, the few multiuser proposals for the downlink require the knowledge of all spreading codes, which is not possible in the tactical military environment, for instance. Enhanced single-user receivers equipped with adaptive filter banks deliver promising performance with reasonable complexity, especially in slowly varying channels. Thus, the performance of single-user detectors is still of interest, particularly in the presence of non-Gaussian noise. In both urban outdoor and indoor mobile radio environments, electromagnetic interference generated by man-made sources such as factories or power lines causes the noise to be of non-Gaussian nature. Large noise magnitudes are deemed very improbable by linear receivers, and consequently performance deterioration is experienced. It is therefore desirable to build systems that can maintain respectable functionality under a broad class of noise distributions, rather than strictly optimizing for the unrealistic Gaussian assumption. Such is the goal of robust detection and estimation theory, which aims to design systems that are suboptimal under nominal channel conditions (e.g., Gaussian channel) and yet do not face catastrophy when the noise distribution is not nominal (e.g., unlike linear schemes). Note that suboptimality here refers to very good performance that is slightly worse than that of the nominal-optimal detector/estimator. The direct sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) technique has been favourably considered for application in digital mobile cellular networks due to its potential to provide higher system capacity over conventional multiple access techniques. Unlike FDMA and TDMA capacities which are mostly limited by the bandwidth, the capacity of a CDMA system is mainly restricted by its interference level. Any reduction in interference produces a direct and linear increase in system capacity. Multiple access interference (MAI) caused by non-zero cross-correlation between different spreading sequences is the major type of interference limiting the CDMA system capacity. Much work has been done to characterize MAI, and to analyze and evaluate the CDMA system performance in the presence of MAI. Since the cross-correlation properties of most sets of spreading codes are either too complex to analyze or very difficult to compute when different transmissions are not synchronized, a random seque nce model. In the case of moderate to large processing gains, Gaussian distribution with variable variance is a good approximation for the MAI distribution. One of the approaches to reduce MAI is to employ orthogonal spreading sequences, and try to synchronize the transmissions at the chip level (quasi-synchronization). However, this is generally difficult to achieve in multipoint-to-point systems, such as the reverse link (mobile-to-base) of a cellular system, due to a lack of synchronization of the various mobile terminals, and the variable transmission delays. In this paper, a multi-carrier DS-CDMA (MCDS-CDMA) scheme is employed to facilitate the synchronization process, and thus reduce MAI. SYSTEM MODEL A model of the MS-DS-CDMA system for the kth user of a CDMA system is shown in the figure 1. TRANMSITTER MODEL At the transmitter the user‘s data stream dk(t) is divided into M interleaved sub streams and spread by a spreading sequence ck(t) to a fraction 1/M of the entire transmission bandwidth W. The resultant chip sequences are then used to modulate M carrier. The carrier frequencies ωm,m=1,2,M are equally spaced by the chip rate so that they are mutually orthogonal over one channel symbol interval T. Let R be the information rate and Rc be the carrier control code rate then the channel symbol interval is BER PERFORMANCE: MC-DS-CDMA system performance measured by bit error rate through analysis and simulation. Analysis: The BER is analysed based on the following: Ortoganal spreading sequences with rectangular pulse shape are applied. ÃŽ ¶k,k=1†¦K are independent of random variables distributd in (-ÃŽ ¶D,ÃŽ ¶D) WHERE ÃŽ ¶D=ÃŽ µD+Ï‚D.Given W and ÃŽ ¶D,M is chosen so that ÃŽ ¶D It is assumed that the fading parameters of the desired user . It is perfectly estimated so that the coherent detection and optimum soft decision decoding could be carried out at the receiver to make the problem analytically tractable. The fading amplitudes as independent Rayleigh random variables with equal second moments. The model is MATLAB INTRODUCTION: Matlab is a commercial Matrix Laboratory package which operates as an interactive programming environment. It is a mainstay of the Mathematics Department software lineup and is also available for PCs and Macintoshes and may be found on the CIRCA VAXes. Matlab is well adapted to numerical experiments since the underlying algorithms for Matlabs builtin functions and supplied m-files are based on the standard libraries LINPACK and EISPACK. Matlab program and script files always have filenames ending with .m; the programming language is exceptionally straightforward since almost every data object is assumed to be an array. Graphical output is available to supplement numerical results. IMREAD Read image from graphics file. A = IMREAD(FILENAME,FMT) reads a grayscale or color image from the file specified by the string FILENAME. If the file is not in the current directory, or in a directory on the MATLAB path, specify the full pathname. The text string FMT specifies the format of the file by its standard file extension. For example, specify gif